Heads of state since independence include 'Ali Soilih (1937–78), who came to power as a result of the 1975 coup and who died after the 1978 takeover; and Ahmad 'Abdallah (1919–89), president briefly in 1975 and restored to power in 1978. Mercenary Bob Denard (b. France, 1929) virtually ruled the country through figurehead presidents between 1978 and 1989, when France negotiated his departure after the assassination of 'Abdallah. Col. Assoumani Azzali (b.1959?) took power in a coup in 1999, assuming the titles of president, prime minister, and defense minister.
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